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LEARNING
OUTCOMES
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By
the end of this topics, you will be able to:
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1.
Identify the evolution of computing fields
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2.
Discus the importance of computer
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3.
Explain any issues that will be impact towards computing
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INTRODUCTION
The basic ideas of computing and calculating are
very old, going back thousands of years. However, the computer in the form in
which it is recognized today is a fairly recent invention. In fact, personal
computers have only been around since the late 1970s. The history of computers
is often referred to in terms of generations, with each new generation
characterized by a major technological development. The next sections summarize
some early calculating devices and the different computer generations.
4.1 Brief history of generation of computer
a) Pre-computers and Early Computers (before
approximately 1946) Based on archeological finds, such as notched bones,
knotted twine, and hieroglyphics, experts have concluded that ancient
civilizations had the ability to count and compute. The abacus is considered by
many to be the earliest recorded calculating device; it was used primarily as
an aid for basic arithmetic calculations. Other early computing devices include
the slide rule, the mechanical calculator, and Dr. Herman Hollerith’s Punch
Card Tabulating Machine and Sorter. This latter device (see Figure 1-7) was the
first electromechanical machine that could read punch cards—special cards with
holes punched in them to represent data. Hollerith’s machine was used to
process the 1890 U.S. Census data and it was able to complete the task in two
and one half years, instead of the decade it usually took to process the data
manually. Consequently, this is considered to be the first successful case of
an information processing system replacing a paper- and-pen-based system.
Hollerith’s company eventually became International Business Machines (IBM).
Figure 4.1
b) First-Generation Computers (approximately
1946–1957)
The first computers were enormous, often taking up
entire rooms. They were powered by thousands of vacuum tubes—glass tubes that
look similar to large light bulbs—which needed replacing constantly, required a
great deal of electricity, and generated a lot of heat. First-generation
computers could solve only one problem at a time because they needed to be
physically rewired with cables to be reprogrammed (see Figure 4.1), which
typically took several days (sometimes even weeks) to complete and several more
days to check before the computer could be used. Usually paper punch cards and
paper tape were used for input, and output was printed on paper.
Two of the most significant examples of
first-generation computers were ENIAC and UNIVAC. ENIAC, shown in Figure 4.1,
was the world’s first large-scale, general- purpose computer. Although it was
not completed until 1946, ENIAC was developed during World War II to compute
artillery- firing tables for the U.S. Army. Instead of the 40 hours required
for a person to compute the optimal settings for a single weapon under a single
set of conditions using manual calculations, ENIAC could complete the same
calculations in less than two minutes. UNIVAC, released in 1951, was initially
built for the U.S. Census Bureau and was used to analyze votes in the 1952 U.S.
pres- idential election. Interestingly, its correct prediction of an Eisenhower
victory only 45 minutes after the polls closed was not publicly aired because
the results were not trusted. However, UNIVAC became the first computer to be
mass produced for general commercial use.
Figure 4.2
c. Second-Generation Computers (approximately
1958–1963)
The second generation of computers began when the
transistor—a small device made of semiconductor material that acts like a
switch to open or close electronic circuits—started to replace the vacuum tube.
Transistors allowed second-generation computers to be smaller, less expensive,
more powerful, more energy-efficient, and more reliable than first-generation
com- puters. Typically, programs and data were input on punch cards and
magnetic tape, output was on punch cards and paper print- outs, and magnetic
tape (see Figure 1-7) was used for storage. Hard drives and pro- gramming
languages (such as FORTRAN and COBOL) were developed and implemented during
this generation.
Figure 4.3
d. Third-Generation Computers (approximately
1964–1970)
The replacement of the transistor with integrated
circuits (ICs) marked the beginning of the third generation of computers. Integrated circuits incorporate many
transistors and electronic circuits on a single tiny silicon chip, allowing
third-generation computers to be even smaller and more reliable than computers
in the earlier computer generations. Instead of punch cards and paper
printouts, keyboards and monitors were introduced for input and output; hard
drives were typically used for storage. An
example of a widely used third- generation computer is shown in Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.4
e. Fourth-Generation Computers (approximately
1971–present)
A technological breakthrough in the early 1970s made
it possible to place an increas- ing number of transistors on a single chip. This
led to the invention of the micropro- cessor in 1971, which ushered in the fourth
generation of computers. In essence, a microprocessor contains the core
processing capabilities of an entire computer on one single chip. The original
IBM PC (see Figure 4.4) and Apple Macintosh computers, and most of today’s
traditional computers, fall into this category. Fourth generation computers
typically use a keyboard and mouse for input, a monitor and printer for output,
and hard drives, flash memory media, and optical discs for storage. This generation
also witnessed the development of computer networks, wireless technologies, and
the Internet.
Figure
4.5
f. Fifth-Generation Computers (now and the future)
Fifth-generation computers are most commonly defined
as those that are based on artifi- cial intelligence, allowing them to think, reason,
and learn (see one example in Figure 4.5). Some aspects of fifth-generation
computers—such as voice and touch input and
speech recognition—are being used today.
In the future, fifth-generation computers are
expected to be constructed differently than
they are today, such as in the form of optical computers that process
data using light instead of electrons, tiny computers that utilize nanotechnology,
or as entire general-purpose computers built into desks, home appliances, and
other everyday devices.
Figure 4.6
4.2 Improvements of computer over time period
Technology affects the way individuals communicate,
learn, and think. It helps society and determines how people interact with each
other on a daily basis. Technology plays an important role in society today. It
has positive and negative effects on the world and it impacts daily lives.
Example Nowadays, youth can definitely be called the computing generation. From
handheld gaming devices to mobile phones to computers at school and home, most
children and teens today have been exposed to computers and related technology
all their lives.
Although the amount of computer use varies from
school to school and from grade level to grade level, most students today have
access to computers at school—and some schools have completely integrated
computers into the curriculum, such as by adopting e-book (electronic)
textbooks that run on school-owned portable computers, or allowing students to
bring in devices to use in class (referred to as BYOD or Bring Your Own
Device). Many schools (particularly college campuses) today also have wireless
hotspots that allow students to connect their personal computers or mobile
devices wirelessly to the Internet from anywhere on campus. Today, students at
all levels are typically required to use a computer to their personal, family,
and work commitments, as well as allows individuals located in very rural areas
or stationed at military posts overseas to take courses when they are not able
to attend classes physically.
4.3 Social Impacts of computer evolutions
Although computers have been used on the job for
years, their role is continually evolving. Computers were originally used as
research tools for computer experts and scientists and then as productivity
tools for office workers. Today, computers are used by all types of employees
in all types of businesses—including corporate executives, retail store clerks,
traveling sales professionals, artists and musicians, engineers, police officers,
insurance adjusters, delivery workers, doctors and nurses, auto mechanics and
repair personnel, and professional athletes. In essence, the computer has
become a universal tool for on-the-job decision making, productivity, and communications.
Computers are also used extensively for access
control at many businesses and organizations, such as authentication systems
that allow only authorized individuals to enter an office building, punch in or
out of work, or access the company network via an access card or a fingerprint
or hand scan, as shown in Figure 4.7. In addition to jobs that require the use
of computers by employees, many new jobs have been created simply because
computers exist, such as jobs in electronics manufacturing, online retailing,
Internet applications, and technology-related computer support.
Figure 4.7
4.4 Health Issues
Despite their many benefits, computers can pose a
threat to a user’s physical and mental well-being. Repetitive stress injuries
and other injuries related to the workplace environment are estimated to
account for one-third of all serious workplace injuries and cost employees,
employers, and insurance companies in lost wages, healthcare expenses, legal
costs, and workers’ compensation claims. Other physical dangers (such as heat
burns and hearing loss) can be associated with computers and related
technology, and there are some concerns about the long-term effect of using
computers and other related devices. Stress, burnout, computer/Internet
addiction, and other emotional health problems are more difficult to quantify,
although many experts believe computer-related emotional health problems are on
the rise. While researchers are continuing to investigate the physical and
emotional risks of computer use and while researchers are working to develop
strategies for minimizing those risks, all computer users should be aware of
the possible effects of computers on their health, and what they can do today
to stay healthy.
4.4.1 Ergonomics
Ergonomics is the science of fitting a work
environment to the people who work there. It typically focuses on making
products and workspaces more comfortable and safe to use. With respect to
computer use, it involves designing a safe and effective workspace, which
includes properly adjusting furniture and hardware and using ergonomic hardware
when needed. A proper work environment—used in conjunction with good user
habits and procedures—can prevent many physical problems caused by computer
use. A proper work environment is important for anyone who works on a computer
or mobile device, including employees using a computer, media tablet, or
smartphone on the job, individuals using one of these devices at home, and
children doing computer activities or texting while at home or at school.
Figure 4.8
4.5 Environmental Issues
The increasing use of computers in our society has
created a variety of environmental concerns. The amount of energy used to power
personal computers, servers, and computer components, as well as the heat generated
by computing equipment, is one concern. Another is our extensive use of paper,
CDs, and other disposables, and how much of it ends up as trash in landfills.
The hazardous materials contained in computer equipment or generated by the
production of computers and related technology, as well as the disposal of used
computing products, are additional concerns. With an increasing amount of attention
being focused on energy usage and carbon emissions, businesses and individuals
are paying more attention to energy costs and their carbon footprint (the
amount of carbon dioxide produced to support activities), as well as the carbon
footprints of their suppliers and business partners.
4.7 Legal Issues
Legislation regarding
ethics has been more difficult to pass-or to keep as law once it has passed.
For example, the Communications Decency Act that was signed into law in 1996
and made it a criminal offense to distribute patently indecent or offensive
material online was eventually declared unconstitutional on the basis of free
speech. 
Ms. Noor Zuhaili bt Md Yasin
Master in Computer Science (Software Engineering), Universiti Putra MalaysiaField of study: Software Engineering, Programming
: zuhaili@nilai.edu.my
S222, Science Block (School of Computing, FEST)
: 012 3634344
Thursday (10-12pm), Friday (3-5pm)
